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COACHING CONVERSATIONS - A WAY OF FOSTERING ATHLETES TO PEAK PERFORMANCE
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By Rune Høigaard, University of Agder and Arild Jørgensen, former coach to the Norwegian National Cross-Country Ski Team
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Even though there is a considerable amount of literature on coaches and the coaching process, there is no single framework or empirical model of effective and successful coaching that has achieved consensus (Lyle, 2002). Given that there is a wide variance in athletes’ needs between sports and competitive levels, gaining consensus may not necessarily be crucial. Nevertheless, there may be some coaching behaviours and approaches that make a particular contribution to effective coaching. |
 One reason for Norwegian success in sport may be the common understanding among coaches that it is important to include and involve the athletes in analysing, planning and evaluating training and competitions. This gives athletes the opportunity to take greater responsibility for their careers, and to gain more understanding of their sport. Moreover, when this is achieved through a close, honest and caring relationship between the coach and the athletes, a mastering and productive atmosphere arises.
This increases the athlete’s motivation and passion for the sport, and influences attitudes and prolongs effort and performance. Individual coaching conversations (ICC) appear to be a significant method in achieving this. This purpose of this article is to describe the central aspects of ICC.
According to Høigaard & Jørgensen (2000)1, the ICC approach is a structural development process, where the main focus is to train athletes to help themselves in order to achieve success. The role of the coach in these conversations is to set up the process and guide the athletes through the process in a focused way. The coaches’ communication skills and how they structure the processes are significant in order to be successful.
The main objective of the conversation is athletic performance and to develop a positive and offensive state of mind in relation to training and competition. Nevertheless, coaches need to adopt a holistic view of the athlete, by focusing on, and demonstrating interest in different aspects of an athlete’s life.
This is important for several reasons. First, it demonstrates that the coach is interested in the athlete as a person, and not just his/her athletic performance. Second, it may increase the athlete’s self-awareness, and more importantly, help the athlete to understand that self-esteem or self-respect is linked to more than performance. Third, increased knowledge and understanding of the athletes is necessary when analysing stress and estimating the athlete’s total load, which is important when planning or regulating the total training and competition load.
One main departure in the ICC approach can be taken from the Danish existential philosopher Søren Kirkegaard’s ‘Art of helping’ (as cited in Høigaard & Jørgensen, 2000).
“If one is truly to succeed in leading a person to a specific place, one must first and foremost take care to find him where he is and begin there.
This is the secret in the entire art of helping. Anyone who cannot do this is himself under a delusion if he thinks he is able to help someone else. In order truly to help someone else, I must understand more than he - but certainly first and foremost understand what he understands. If I do not do that, then my greater understanding does not help him at all. If I nevertheless want to assert my greater understanding, then it is because I am vain or proud, then basically instead of benefiting him I really want to be admired by him”.
Kierkegaard’s words are both philosophical and practical. In order to develop an effective coaching relationship and process, insight into how the athlete perceives and experiences the situation is required. The athlete’s experience and view is the core and baseline of the coaching process in order to establish an effective coaching process and develop the athlete. In addition to knowledge about the sport, e.g. technique, tactics or general competence in strength training and endurance, the coach also needs to know about communication, coaching processes and structures.
Kirkegaard refers to his text as ‘the art of helping’. ICC may then be viewed as a form of aid for athletes in order to develop their athletic career and enable them to reach peak performance. It is described as an art, and like artists, the coach needs intuition and creativity, combined with high standards.
The ICC approach is based on the following assumptions:
- Solution focused. Even though it may be necessary to analyze and reflect on problems and obstacles, don’t forget to adopt a solution-focused attitude, i.e. focus on what works. Steering attention toward situations or sequences when the athlete has succeeded, or focusing on the improvements and advances that already have been made, increases both motivation and self-efficacy and the chance of finding good solutions.
- Use the athlete’s ability. Work in a way that it makes clear to the athlete what he/she needs to do and emphasise that she/he has what it takes to conquer or solve the challenges, obstacles or problems.
- Athletes are responsible. Involve the athletes in their own career. Ownership of plans, decisions and goals increases motivation, and prolongs efforts to achieve goals or conquer obstacles.
- Learning is essential. Coaching is a matter of learning. Good coaching is good teaching and the coach needs to create a good learning process and environment.
We define ICC as a pedagogical approach that is context-dependent and context-sensitive. This might imply that there is a long list of conditions and terms that influence what is wise, professional or correct to do or say in the conversations. However, the context consists primarily of who is meeting, why they meet, what the topic is, and when and where the meeting takes place.
Moreover, as with pedagogical work in general, we need systematic knowledge in order to plan, accomplish, reflect and evaluate. The ICC is made up of eight different components that are reciprocally related (Figure 1) (Mathisen & Høigaard, 2004).
Figure 1. The eight components in ICC are reciprocally related
Goals can be articulated clearly before the conversation, for example: the purpose of this planned and scheduled meeting is to draw up pre-competition plans. Goals can also be developed during the process as a response to challenges or problems that occur. Regardless of the type of occasion for the coaching conversation, it is important that the coach helps the athlete to develop specific, concrete, challenging, but realistic goals. Athletes’ involvement in the goal process and in establishing well-formed goals is essential in order to create confidence, autonomy and motivation. It is proven that goals are beneficial in order to increase performance, to solve problems, or to overcome obstacles (Burton & Naylor, 2002; de Shazer, 1988).
The content of the conversation can be selected or defined either by the coach or the athlete. It may be related to competition or training, but also to psychological and social conditions. It may further be related to a forthcoming challenge or competition, an ongoing situation, or a reflection or evaluation of past experience. “As the national cross country coach for the Norwegian team, I always tried to have one main coaching conversation per month, in addition to the regular contact I had.” (Arild Jørgensen).
Evaluation of the conversation can be done continuously during the conversation or as a summing-up at the end. The athletes’ evaluation of the process and outcome needs to be evaluated in relation to established goals. This is important in order to ensure that the process is on the right track. It is also vital that the coach carries out self-reflection or self-evaluation.
Systematic self-evaluation in order to ensure that the process is done properly is necessary and will also contribute to the coaches’ skill development. Evaluations can be done using a logbook of the conversations, audio recordings or peer observations from other coaches (ask the athlete for permission). A common challenge for coaches is lack of time, but taking a few minutes after a coaching session in order to reflect and evaluate what was good and whether something could have been done differently, is a good investment. “In my monthly coaching conversations the athlete and I always evaluate the training. We do not just look for mistakes, but try to be aware of the factors that have enabled us to move forward” (Arild Jørgensen.)
The coaching conversation can be described as having an inner and outer framework. Outer frameworks are the context, i.e. all the influential factors that surround the conversation, for example, place, goals, expectations. The coach, with his expertise, personal style and communication and coaching qualifications is also a framework factor. It is important to be aware of these factors and be able to deal, influence or even change them so that the coaching conversations have “optimal” conditions and effects in a particular situation. The inner framework is related to the conversation structure i.e. how the conversation is organized, for example, using the COACH acronym:
- Competency; assessing current level of performance
- Outcomes; setting outcome action
- Agreeing; drawing up tactics and initiating action
- Checking; giving feedback and making sense of what has been done and learnt.
Remembering what was said in previous conversations and reminding the athletes about this provides the continuity that is necessary to create effective learning and optimal development processes.
Methods are related to the coaches’ use of communication skills and methodical strategies. The coach can use a wide repertoire of different coaching skills. However, where such skills are lacking, the process may then be characterised as monotonous and rigid. Moreover, the process can be tight and formal, or accidental and intuitive. Nevertheless, the coaching conversation will never be better than the competence of the coach. Competence in sports-specific domains, as well as being able to communicate, organize and progress the coaching process, is essential.
The coach-athlete relationship can be characterized by closeness, confidence and security, or by tension, mistrust and distance. In an effective coaching conversation process, the primary condition in order to persist and be effective is to create a positive, constructive, trusting and task-oriented relationship. The relationship will often be asymmetric, i.e. the coach generally has more competence, power or formal authority. Therefore it is necessary for the coach to use her/his power ethically in order to prevent unethical or incompetent behaviour.
Superior coaches are often recognized by their ability to sense their own and the athletes’ boundaries. The role the coaches execute in the conversations may be different from the role on the pitch, in a regular training session or as a team-leader. It may therefore be necessary to explain the differences of this role and how this ‘conversation’ role will be executed.
This is especially important when athletes lack experience of coaching conversations. Misunderstandings based on uncertainty may then be cleared up. Within a solution-focused coaching approach, it is common practice to distinguish between three different types of relationships between the coach and the athlete: the visitor type, the complainer type, and the customer type (Høigaard & Johansen, 2004).
- The visitor type relationship: Visitors are there because they have to be. The problem to be solved does not worry them much, or they may not realize that they have a problem.
- The complainer type relationship: Complainers contribute by giving precise descriptions of the problem, but regard themselves as innocent “victims” and claim that those who have caused the problem, or who know about it, ought to find the solution.
- The customer type relationship: Customers are motivated and eager to do something in order to solve the problem.
The different relationships do not reflect an athlete’s personal qualities. They simply provide a description of the relationship between the athlete and the coach at a given time. The three types of relationship are more like categories of motivation arising from the interplay between the coach and the athlete in a way that makes the athlete a participant in the work of improvement. There are two important aspects that need to be kept in mind. First, the relationship between the coach and the athlete will change as a result of what happens during the course of the conversation. Second, the coach should try to create a customer relationship, making a “customer” out of a “visitor” or a “complainer,” adjusting the coaching accordingly.
 Personal style and behaviour. Coaches’ personal style and behaviours have a significant impact on the coaching process. Personal qualities will always be interwoven with the way in which the coach executes the conversations. It is therefore important that coaches are self-aware and know how their own attitudes and behaviours influence other. Moreover, it is essential that coaches have the ability and will to regulate their own behaviours in a way that is appropriate and positive for the athletes’ progress. The values and attitudes that contribute to establishing a helpful and productive relationship include being genuine (e.g. be yourself and don’t pretend to be someone else), having positive intentions, showing respect and being honest.
The 8 variables. Some factors or elements are difficult or impossible to describe or predict. These unknown factors are labelled the “8 variables” and represent the ‘other’ factors that are influential.
Concluding Remarks
Remember that the different components can have varying degrees of influence depending on the situation and the context. In one situation or stage of the conversation it may be of vital importance to state the goal or the content clearly and crisply, while in other situations a clear understanding of the context may be the most important. What is important is that the coach is aware and understands the significance and content of these factors, and moreover is able to use, moderate or regulate them in order to create an effective coaching conversation process.
We are convinced that ICC is important for top athletes in order to extend their performance, but for athletes who lack confidence, are injured, are experiencing obstacles or are in a career transition situation, ICC is essential. A final piece of advice: in order to increase the impact and quality of ICC, on-going, systematic practice is necessary. Have a pleasant ICC journey with your athletes in order to reach peak performance!
About The Authors
Rune Høigaard (Ph.D) is an Associate Professor at the University of Agder, Institute of Public Health, Sport and Nutrition. He is the author of several books and articles on sports psychology, group dynamics, coaching and counselling. He is also founder of the mentor program: Fostering coaches through mentoring. Rune has several years’ experience with individual coaching and team coaching in sport, and in public and private organizations.
Arild Jørgensen is the former coach to the Norwegian national cross-country ski team. He has more than 30 years experience in coaching in a variety of branches of athletics.
Arild has been using individual coaching conversations in his work in developing athletes and trainers. He is now head of special needs education in a Junior High School and coaches a regional cross-country team as well as individual athletes at international level. He is also a mentor for several top trainers in Norway.
References
Burton, D., & Naylor, S. (2002). The Jekyll/ Hyde nature of goals: Revisiting and updating goal-setting in sport. In T. Horn (Ed.). Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 459-499). Champaign: Human Kinetics.
de Shazer, S. (1988). Clues: Investigating solutions in brief therapy. New York: W.W. Norton.
Høigaard & Jørgensen (2000) 1. Veiledningssamtaler i idrett. [Coaching conversations in Sport] Kristiansand, Norwegian Academic Press.
Høigaard, R., & Johansen, B.T. (2004). The solution-focused approach in sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 218-228.
Lyle, J. (2002). Sport coaching Concepts. A framework for coaches’ behaviour. London: Routledge.
Mathisen, P., & Høigaard, R. (2004). Veiledningsmetodikk. En handbok i praktisk veiledningsarbeid. [Counselling methodology. A handbook in practical counselling work]. Kristiansand: Norwegian Academic Press.
1. A new book: ‘Coaching Conversations with athletes’ will be available in 2008
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Excerpted from USOC Olympic Coach E-Magazine Fall 2007
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